“The commotion in Massachusetts has been great and alarming…The men who have taken up arms in that State are, mostly, men of desperate fortunes, and light principles…They have determined to break up the courts of justice, to prevent the collection of debts, public and private, and to compel the legislature to grant their demands…What is to give security to our rights and property? The executive of the United States has no power to interpose…if the powers of the National Government are not enlarged, we shall soon fall into a state of anarchy and confusion.”

Source: Henry Knox, Letter to George Washington regarding Shays’ Rebellion, October 1786

Respond to parts A), B), and C).

A) Briefly describe ONE specific economic or social factor that contributed to the “commotion in Massachusetts” described by Knox.

B) Briefly explain ONE specific argument made by political leaders like Knox or Washington regarding the national government’s response to events like Shays’ Rebellion.

C) Briefly explain ONE major political outcome that resulted from the unrest described in the passage.

Answers – let’s take a look!

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Algorithms are the core logic behind software. They play an increasingly important and ubiquitous part of our daily lives. Algorithms tell computers how to process data, power search engines, recommend videos on social media, and run artificial intelligence.

SAT test writers are aware of the growing importance of algorithms. A recent vocabulary in context passage pointed out that algorithms have specific PARAMETERS or fixed rules that help influence production schedules by allowing for the rapid solution of manufacturing planning problems.

I am happy to report that most students chose PARAMETERS as the most logical and precise answer. However, ANOMALIES and especially OPTIMIZATIONS tempted many students. An ANOMALY is a deviation from a rule or pattern. While ANOMALIES was clearly a wrong answer, OPTIMIZATIONS did provide a tempting answer.

OPTIMIZATIONS are the acts or results of making something as perfect or effective as possible. The passage relied upon a cause-and-effect relationship where the missing answer must influence production schedules. An algorithm uses PARAMETERS as inputs to create an OPTIMIZED output or production schedule.

OPTIMIZATION provides an important insight into how SAT test writers create tempting wrong answers. They deliberately included OPTIMIZATIONS because it sounds highly relevant to “algorithms” and “production schedules.” This is a classic SAT trap! Watch out for answers in which a word matches the general topic of the passage but fails to match the exact logic of the passage!

PARAMETERS – fixed rules or limitations

ANOMALIES – deviations from the norm

OPTIMIZATIONS – making something as perfect or effective as possible

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The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. The 48 delegates faced an unprecedented and ever-deepening crisis. Bloody battles between colonial militias and British redcoats had just been fought in Lexington and Concord. The shock of American casualties in Massachusetts hung over every debate inside the Pennsylvania State House. Outside the building local militia companies drilled in the streets as their drums echoed off the brick facades on nearby buildings.

The First Continental Congress met to protest British taxes. In contrast, the delegates at the Second Continental Congress were tasked with managing an undeclared war while the colonists were still subjects of King George III. Over the next 13 months the delegates simultaneously prepared for a war they hoped to avoid. Although the events that culminated in the Declaration of Independence now seem inevitable, at the time America’s fate remained inextricably tied to an unpredictable series of actions and reactions.

The Olive Branch Petition

The delegates to the Second Continental Congress felt a profound sense of urgency to respond the ongoing crisis. But what should they do? Radicals such as John Adams and Sam Adams argued that a full-scale war was inevitable. In contrast, moderates led by John Dickinson believed that a peaceful reconciliation was possible. They urged the Congress to pursue every diplomatic avenue before permanently committing to an armed conflict.

Caught between the outbreak of violence in Massachusetts and a widespread desire to reach a diplomatic solution, the delegates finally approved sending King George III an Olive Branch Petition. The petition affirmed the colonies’ loyalty to the Crown while imploring George III to undertake measures to resolve the conflict.

The Olive Branch Petition reached London in August 1775. George III now faced a fateful decision. He could use the petition as a way of opening serious negotiations to resolve the issues dividing Great Britain and her North American colonies. Instead, George III and his ministers viewed the Second Continental Congress as an illegal assembly operating outside the constitutional authority of the British Empire. From the Crown’s perspective, the colonies were already engaged in a full-scale insurrection that made their peace overtures seem disingenuous. Given these beliefs, George III refused to read the Olive Branch Petition and instead issued a formal proclamation declaring the colonies in “open and avowed rebellion.” He ordered all civil and military officers to bring the rebel leaders to justice for treason.

Common Sense

George III’s refusal to read the Olive Branch Petition crushed the hopes of moderates who had viewed the monarch as a “Good King” who was misguided by corrupt advisors. Despite their misgivings, a majority of American colonists still vacillated as they faced a momentous question: Should the colonies return to the British Empire or should they declare their independence?

A compelling answer to this question came from an unlikely source. Thomas Paine immigrated to Pennsylvania in 1774. In January 1776, the previously unknown author published Common Sense. The 47-page pamphlet attacked monarchy as an institution by insisting that kings were forcibly imposed upon people capable of self-government. Paine assailed George III as an oppressive “royal brute” who should be scorned and not venerated. He argued that independence was inevitable since a growing continent could not be permanently tied to a small and distant island. Paine concluded by exhorting the colonists to declare independence and “begin the world over again.”

Congress Declares Independence

Common Sense became an instant bestseller that reached hundreds of thousands of people and was even read aloud in taverns and town squares. People throughout the colonies agreed with Paine’s persuasive arguments why America should pursue its own destiny. The Continental Congress responded to the shift in public sentiment by formally adopting the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Declaration marked a watershed turning point in American history. The colonies now became independent states, and the Second Continental Congress became the central government of a people at war. The Continental Congress would ultimately win the war and negotiate a favorable peace treaty.

So why should you remember the sequence of events leading to the Declaration of Independence?

APUSH exams regularly contain set of multiple-choice questions that focus on the Olive Branch Petition, Common Sense, and the Declaration of Independence. You should know that the ideas about government in Common Sense were consistent with Enlightenment ideals about liberty. The Declaration of Independence created a new American identity by transforming a debate over taxes into a fight for independence.

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No single cause adequately explains a historical event. The word “cause” is a convenient figure of speech for the INTERPLAY or way forces act upon and influence each other.

SAT test writers are aware of this fundamental principle of causation. A vocabulary in context question on the October 2026 test began by noting that changing weather patterns are just one of several conditions that affect farmers. The INTERPLAY of these factors makes farm management a particularly challenging occupation.

This was not INTERPLAY’s first appearance on the digital SAT. Back in November 2025 SAT test writers focused on the INTERPLAY of natural forces such as tides and winds affect how architects design lighthouses.

INTERPLAY’s appearance as a correct answer on two different tests confirms its status as a member of our list of Double Trouble words!

INTERPLAY – the way two or more forces act upon and influence each other

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I’m very pleased to report that my High-Frequency, Double Trouble, and One Hit Wonder lists have produced at least 16 confirmed direct vocabulary hits on the October 3, 2026 SAT – hooray! Although the October SAT contained many recycled questions, it also included several new words. Let’s take a look at THROUGHPUT!

THROUGHPUT is a term used to describe the amount of material, data, or work that a system handles, processes, and delivers within a specified time. For example, Amazon, UPS, and FedEx operate distribution centers that process millions of packages each day. They maximize THROUGHPUT by using advanced scheduling systems and staging areas that allow them to process and then deliver an amazing array of packages.

I have to admit that THROUGHPUT caught me by surprise. I have been studying and teaching SAT vocabulary for over 30 years. The October 2026 SAT marks THROUGHPUT’s first ever appearance on an SAT. Fortunately, the vocabulary in context question included a straightforward passage and obviously incorrect distracters like “staffing,” and “liability.” I am very happy to report that all of my students and Substack subscribers correctly answered the THROUGHPUT question. Needless to say, I will add THROUGHPUT to my list of One Hit Wonder words!

THROUGHPUT – the amount of material or data that a system handles, processes, or delivers within a specified period of time

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What word comes to your mind when you see a picture of a sloth? Most people associate sloths with being slothful or lazy and inactive. But is this common association correct?

Dr. Rebecca Cliffe is a British zoologist who is one of the world’s leading experts on the behavior and ecology of sloths. In her book Sloths: Life in the Slow Lane, Dr. Cliffe DISPELS or removes misconceptions about sloths.

Needless to say, SAT test writers are aware of how Dr. Cliffe’s research DISPELS misconceptions about sloths. It turns out that sloths are not lazy. Their slow movements are a clever survival strategy to save energy. Sloths mostly eat leaves, twigs and buds. This food has very few nutrients and calories. Sloths have one of the lowest metabolic rates of any mammal. It can take up to a month for them to digest a single meal! Because they get so little energy from their food, sloths must move slowly to conserve their energy!

DISPEL – to remove misconceptions, false ideas, and rumors

Bonus Point: American history provides many examples of how writers DISPELLED popular misconceptions. For example, during the 1950s, most biologists accepted the prevailing view that DDT and other chemical pesticides were harmless tools that safely eradicated mosquitoes and other insect pests. However, an American marine biologist named Rachel Carson conducted research that DISPELLED this popular misconception about DDT. Carson published her findings in Silent Spring, a groundbreaking book that helped launch the environmental movement.

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CANDID means to be completely open, honest, and straightforward. CANDID made its debut as a One Hit Wonder on the October 3, 2026 SAT. In the passage a young ballerina provided a CANDID description of her experiences with the New York Ballet.

Now let me be CANDID about the October 3, 2026 SAT: Early reports from International students indicated that ATTENUATED was the answer to a question about a drought. I’m not gonna lie, my heart sank as I initially reacted by thinking, “Oh no! I have repeatedly warned all my students and Substack subscribers that ATTENUATED is a WRONG answer!” But wait! Further information revealed that INCIPIENT was actually the correct answer – whew! So my advice worked and my students reported that they correctly answered the difficult drought stress question!

And best of all, INCIPIENT is a DIRECT HIT!!

CANDID – open, honest, and straightforward; forthright

ATTENUATED – to reduce in force or strength; diminish

INCIPIENT – in the beginning stages of development

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ADMONISH was indisputably the “word of the day” on the October 3, 2026 SAT. It appeared in a challenging vocabulary in context question on BOTH the International and the US tests!

An ADMONITION is a sincere warning given as a piece of advice or mild constructive criticism. For example, in his Farewell Address, George Washington famously ADMONISHED America to avoid entangling foreign alliances. I regularly, ADMONISH my SAT students to study my Substack lists of High-Frequency, Double Trouble, and One Hit Wonder words.

The October 3, 2026 passage focused on the powers of female superheroes. The passage warned that these characters sometimes exhibit behavior that has negative consequences. The key word “warn” clearly supports ADMONISH as the most logical and precise answer. Unfortunately, many students chose OBFUSCATE believing that superhero female characters were used to deliberately mislead their fans.

ADMONISH – to give a warming intended as sincere advice

OBFUSCATE – to deliberately make something unclear; confuse

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In his classic song “Swayin’ to the Music,” Johnny Rivers describes a romantic moment “late at night” when he and his girl are “all alone…slow dancing,’ swayin’ to the music.” In this musical context, SWAY means to move slowly from side to side.

Guess what - SWAY has another meaning! It can also mean to convince a person to change his or her mind. For example, Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense played a crucial role in SWAYING public opinion against King George III. Similarly, Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin played a crucial role in SWAYING public opinion against slavery.

Needless to say, SAT test writers prefer to use SWAY in passages that involve trying to change someone’s opinion. For example, recent tests have featured a passage describing how motorists are often incensed by EXORBITANT or very expensive tolls on widely used bridges. No amount of persuasion can SWAY or change the minds of angry and frustrated drivers who feel the tolls are UNWARRANTED or unjustified.

SWAY – to convince a person to change his or her opinion

EXORBITANT – excessively and unreasonably expensive

WARRANTED - justified

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SAT test writers have a penchant for words with multiple meanings. Their recent use of RECOVER provides an excellent example of how they sometimes use easy words in very tricky vocabulary in context questions.

RECOVER is a very common word. For example, we try to RECOVER something that is lost and RECOVER from an illness. No problem! But wait, for HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) technicians RECOVER means to collect or gather something. It goes without saying that this is the context SAT test writers chose to use. Let me explain:

R-22 refrigerant is a gas used in central air conditioners, supermarket display cases, and ice machines. But, R-22 contains chlorine which damages the Earth’s ozone layer. Given this problem should HVAC technicians RELEASE or RECOVER the R-22 refrigerant.

Good question. Many of my students assumed the technicians would RELEASE the R-22 refrigerant. This does seem to make sense. However, the passage provides an important clue. We are told that technicians do not VENT R-22 during repairs. VENT means to release. So, this eliminates RELEASE as a possible answer. In addition, the phrase “this careful collecting process” further supports RECOVER as the most logical and precise answer.

RECOVER – to collect or gather something

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Each of these words has been confirmed as a correct answer on a vocabulary in context question between March 2023 and September 2026.

Let’s take a look:

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Each of these words has been confirmed as a correct answer on a vocabulary in context question between March 2023 and September 2026.

Let’s take a look:

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Highway 17 is a very busy road that extends south of Charleston, South Carolina. Many tourists use the road to travel to the beautiful beaches along the coast. Very few notice a roadside historic marker noting the nearby location of the 1739 Stono Rebellion, the largest slave insurrection in British North America.

Causes of the rebellion

The immediate cause of the Stono Rebellion lay in the demographic imbalance between white South Carolina planters and their enslaved African workers. Fueled by the lucrative export of rice and indigo crops, planters imported vast numbers of West Africans throughout the early eighteenth century. By 1739, enslaved Africans outnumbered white colonists in South Carolina by a margin of two to one.

An ongoing rivalry with Spain provided a spark that ignited the rebellion. Seeking to destabilize British colonial enterprises in the southeastern colonies, Spanish authorities in Florida issued a decree offering freedom to any enslaved person fleeing British territory. The promise of sanctuary in St. Augustine provided a powerful magnet for enslaved Africans enduring brutal conditions on rice and indigo plantations.

“Liberty! Liberty!”

Led by a literate enslaved man named Cato, about twenty enslaved Africans secretly plotted a daring insurrection. The rebels selected Sunday, September 9, 1739, knowing that the white planters would be in church.

The rebellion began when Cato and his followers raided a general store and killed two shopkeepers. They then seized a supply of guns and ammunition. As the rebels marched southward toward Florida enslaved Africans from neighboring plantations joined their ranks. Cato’s men burned several plantations and killed approximately twenty white colonists. The exuberant rebels beat on drums and joyously shouted “Liberty! Liberty!”

A brief but bloody battle

The Stono Rebellion only lasted a day. Alerted by frantic reports of widespread death and destruction, a heavily armed militia of about one hundred men raced to intercept the rebels. A brief but bloody battle soon ensued. The militia’s superior firepower enabled them to gain the upper hand and suppress the insurrection. Cato and a number of his followers tried to escape to nearby swamps along the Stono River. However, the planters soon captured and executed most of the rebels.

Consequences of the rebellion

Although it was brief, the Stono Rebellion had long-lasting consequences. Terrified by the realization that an organized force of slaves could threaten South Carolina’s stability, the colony’s General Assembly enacted the Negro Act of 1740. This sweeping statute codified strict controls designed to prevent future insurrections. For example, enslaved Africans were prohibited from traveling without passes signed by their owners. In addition, the act outlawed group gatherings without white supervision and made it illegal to teach slaves how to read or write.

So why should you remember the Stono Rebellion?

Slaves comprised the majority of South Carolina’s population. The Stono Rebellion underscored the growing tension in colonial society between slaves and their owners. South Carolina’s harsh new Slave Code became a model for other Southern states. The Stono Rebellion made South Carolina planters very sensitive to any threat to what they would later call their “peculiar institution.” It is not accident that the Civil War began in Charleston just a few miles north of where the Stono Rebellion took place.

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NOMINAL means very small and thus a token amount of something. There are three very important reasons why you should know the meaning of this word. Let’s take a look:

First, NOMINAL has been the correct answer for three recent questions about the impact of oil shocks.

Second, these questions have all included IDIOSYNCRATIC as a tempting but wrong answer.

And third, the oil shock cluster has also supported SUBDUED and ABATE as HIGH-FREQUENCY wrong answers. This group of similar questions has emerged as one of the TOP FIVE clusters of vocabulary in context questions. Here’s why:

SAT test writers do not create brand new questions for every test. Instead, they use a test authoring strategy based upon developing and then using standardized blueprints or templates. On live tests, they swap out specific variables – like key words, passage topics, and names – while keeping the underlying logic, difficulty level, and distractor mechanisms the same.

The “Oil Shock Cluster” has become a High-Frequency template. It is based upon the economic reality that the global economy has experienced a number of dramatic increases in the price of oil. For example, the Iran War is currently causing an oil shock that is being felt by American and global motorists, truckers, and farmers.

A research team led by Gbadebo Oladosu has studied oil shocks that occurred in 1957, 1973, 1979, and 2008. They reached the surprising conclusion that these dramatic increases in oil prices did NOT have a uniform IDIOSYNCRATIC (peculiar; unique) or DETRIMENTAL (harmful) impact on the global economy. Instead, the impact of oil prices was typically merely NOMINAL and SUBDUED (restrained) because the rise in prices quickly ABATED or became less intense. In addition, the impact of oil prices varied from country to country.

So a word to the wise: Make sure that you recognize the Oil Shock Cluster and remember that NOMINAL, SUBDUED, and ABATED are correct answers and that IDIOSYNCRATIC and DETRIMENTAL are incorrect answers!

NOMINAL – very small; minimal

SUBDUED – restrained

ABATED – to become less intense

IDIOSYNCRATIC – unique; peculiar

DETRIMENTAL - harmful

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SAT test writers regularly recycle questions and vocabulary words. Here is our list of the Double Trouble Words that have appeared as answers on tests between March 2023 and September 2026. Nine of these words were answers on the August 22, 2026 and September 12, 202s SATs. Let’s take a look:

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SAT test writers regularly recycle questions and key vocabulary words. Here is our list of the High-Frequency Words that have appeared on between 3 and 7 SATs between March 2023 and September 2026. FOURTEEN of these MUST KNOW 48 words were answers on the August 22, 2026 and September 12, 2026 SATs. Let’s take a look:

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VULNERABLE is an easy term to define and illustrate. It describes a situation in which someone or something is exposed to harm. For example, weak passwords leave our computers and cell phones VULNERABLE to attack from hackers.

SAT test writers are more interested in the ecological threat posed by caiman lizards to Florida wildlife than they are to the threat to your computer posed by miscreant hackers. Let me explain: Caiman lizards are large, semi-aquatic South American reptiles known for their bright green body, reddish-orange head and spiky scales. During the 1950s, irresponsible exotic pet traders and the greedy leather industry officials brought caiman lizards to South Florida. The invasive pests promptly began preying on VULERNABLE turtles – major bummer!

Bonus point: I just learned that any password under 8 characters is VULNERABLE to modern hacking tools!

VULNERABLE – exposed to possible harm

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POPULATED should be a relatively easy word. It is a past-tense verb form of POPULATE that means having people and animals living in or filling a place.

POPULATE first appeared as a correct answer on the September 2025 SAT. I added it to my list of One Hit Wonders and later illustrated it by noting that Hippies POPULATED San Francisco’s Haight-Asbury district during the 1967 Summer of Love.

My first response to POPULATED clearly underestimated the ability of SAT test writers to place an easy word in an unfamiliar context. POPULATED just reappeared as a Module 2 question on the September 2026 SAT. The passage featured a discussion of “microbial slurries.” Wow, this is a long way from the Summer of Love hippies!

The passage explained that a research team POPULATED pots of sterilized soil with slurries of live microbes. The word “sterilized” led many students to chose “SANITIZED” as a logical answer that seemingly fit the topic. WRONG! A slurry is a thin watery mix of insoluble particles suspended in a liquid. The logic of the passage supports POPULATED since the researchers grew mustard plants in the now POPULATED pots.

POPULATED now has my full attention! I have added to a place on my list of Double Trouble words!

POPULATED – having people or animals living in or filling a place

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DISCRETION means freedom to make decisions. For example, a police officer has the DISCRETION to give a motorist either a warning or a ticket for driving a few miles above the speed limit.

SAT test writers have the DISCRETION to choose words and examples for their vocabulary in context questions. A recent passage focused on (you guessed it) DISCRETION! According to the passage, renovations in one city were standardized for new buildings. However, inspectors and builders could use their DISCRETION on how to repair older buildings. This freedom to judge provides support for DISCRETION as the most logical and precise answer!

DISCRETION – the freedom to make decisions

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Source 1

“The development of the first American party system was not a mere squabble between ambitious elites, but a fundamental ideological battle over the soul of the new republic. On one side stood Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists, who envisioned a centralized empire guarded by a robust federal government. On the other side, Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans championed an agrarian democracy, fearing that Hamilton’s financial programs would recreate the very British tyranny they had just fought to overthrow. Political parties emerged as essential vehicles for citizens to defend competing, deeply held philosophies about liberty and authority”

Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., historian, The Age of Jackson, 1945

Source 2

“The rhetoric of liberty and tyranny used by early American politicians masked a far more practical reality: the first political parties were organized primarily to protect distinct regional economic interests. Northern merchants, speculators, and urban elites coalesced around the Federalist banner to secure federal protections for manufacturing, shipping, and public credit. Conversely, Southern planters and Western farmers aligned under the Democratic-Republican name to shield their agrarian-based economies from federal taxation and commercial interference. Ideology was the language used to mobilize voters, but regional economic preservation was the engine”

Charles A. Beard, historian, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution

of the United States, 1913

Respond to parts (A), (B), and (C)

(A) Describe one major difference between Schlesinger’s and Beard’s historical interpretations of the origins of American political parties.

(B) Explain how one specific event or development from the period from 1789 to 1800 can be used to support Schlesinger’s argument about the origins of American political parties.

(C) Explain how one specific event or development from the period from 1789 to 1800 can be used to support Beard’s argument about the origins of American political parties.

ANSWERS – Let’s take a look!

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